Junior College Thesis Elizabeth Brooks 1915

Brooks, Elizabeth. "The Junior College." Master's thesis, Clark University, 1917.

Elizabeth Brooks' thesis on the junior college, which appeared shortly after Amos Gray's thesis at the University of California and about the time of McDowell's dissertation at Iowa State, offers the reader a remarkably thorough and balanced analysis of the conditions that gave rise to the junior college. Most importantly, Brooks' recognized that these conditions were not uniform across the nation, but varied by region. In California, the principal spur to the development of the junior college was, in her view, the fact that much of the state was geographically isolated from its two universities. To send a child off to the University of California or Stanford was, for most Californian parents, a decision to be separated from the child for a good part of the year. As she astutely observed, many parents were simply "loath to send young students so far from home for the greater part of the year." In a state with no tradition of academies and only 16 colleges, the upward extension of the public high school was clearly the only reasonable means by which these students could receive some college education and remain at home.

In the Midwest, however, Brooks found that a very different set of conditions led to the development of junior colleges. In much of the Midwest, and particularly Missouri, she argued, an excess of small, poorly-endowed colleges, and not parental concerns, led to the creation of the region’s first junior colleges. It was not simply, as Brooks described matters, that these small colleges lacked the endowment to support a credible baccalaureate program. Much more seriously, the primary source of their meager incomes -- preparatory departments and academies -- were losing students to the increasingly popular (and tuition-free) public high schools. If these small colleges did not quickly secure a place in the increasingly "standardized" and hierarchical system of American schooling, their future was decidedly bleak. As described by Brooks, their best hope rested in being reborn as junior colleges (which, she noted, should not only include the first two years of college, but the last two years of the standard high school), standardized by state university-sponsored accreditation.

Submitted for the Degree of Master of Arts at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, and accepted on the recommendation of [Signature]

Introduction
Chapter I
The Junior College in the American School System
Chapter II
Types of the Junior College
Chapter III
The Junior College in State Groups
Chapter IV
Agents of Standardization
Chapter V
Courses of Study

The Junior College in the American school system is so new as to be only fairly well defined. Its work is generally understood as that of the freshman and sophomore years of the standard college. But whether it is regarded as an independent organization -- a college with the junior and senior years eliminated -- or as an upward extension of the public high school, depends upon the locality and the local problems in education. Descriptive literature has practically all appeared within the past five years, the bulk of it, still small, within the past two years; and even as one writes, new reports are awaited from the press on phases of the subject still untouched.
The most fertile sources of published information are the proceedings of the several educational associations and the educational journals, reporting articles and addresses of school men on junior college, high school reorganization, and college adjustment to changing ideals in education. Prominent in these reports is a reference to the California plan of extending the high schools to include the first two years of a standard college course, and the Missouri plan for standardizing the small colleges to secure uniform and efficient courses and a close [p. 3] articulation with the State school system.

This study will deal with beginnings in the various sections of the country, with influences for and against the establishment of the junior college, and with the evident trend of opinion of those who know it best. To this end, the chapters are arranged to present the junior college in its relations to the secondary school and to the college, its present organization in the several State school systems the tendencies toward its further adoption, and the outlook for its development.

The origin of the idea of & division of the college into junior and senior departments is generally conceded to President William Rainey Harper, of the University of Chicago. In drafting the educational policy, in 1891, for the present university, which he conceived as an experiment in the founding of a real university in America, President Harper modified the usual plan or college organization into four classes. He recognized the first two years of the college course as essentially of the same academic nature as the secondary school and expressed a belief that "this period of six years is a period which stands by itself as between the period of elementary education and that of the university." (35) The last two years he regarded as the time for advanced work, specialization, the beginning of the university proper. The undergraduate department was [p. 4] therefore divided, not into the usual four classes, but into two colleges, the "Academic," covering the first two years, and the "University," covering the last two years of the undergraduate course. The terms academic and university were later discarded for junior and senior, and students were classified, not as freshmen or sophomore, junior or senior, but as members of the junior college or of the senior college. As the plan of organization included the four colleges of Liberal Arts, of Sciences, of Literature, and of Practical Arts, eight colleges were thus planned, as the Junior College of Liberal Arts, the Senior College of Liberal Arts, and so on thru the list.

In 1915, President Harry Pratt Judson wrote concerning the success of this plan:

The third part of the organization which has remained is that of the distinction between the senior and junior colleges. The junior colleges cover work which could be done and should be done in the secondary school. The original division has been retained at the end of the second year. Recent study makes it probably advisable that this division-point should fall earlier in the course, but the division remains, and the likelihood of being able to slough off this Junior College work, which was one of the original intensions [sic] of the University, seems stronger today than it ever has been since the University opened.

A member of the University faculty is quoted as having written at the same time:

The division of the college work into the Junior and Senior Colleges has been an unqualified success, striking the natural line of division between preparatory work and professional work. The trend of events indicates that in time this line of division will become an actual line of [p. 5] cleavage in the best universities in the country, the Senior College combining with the graduate and professional schools to form the real University, the Junior Colleges being absorbed by the secondary schools. For some of the most important university work, for instance the medical, this cleavage, made possible by the original division, is already practically a matter of fact, and the University s lead in this direction has been followed by the majority of good medical schools in the country. (31)

Dean Angell, in a Convocation address in 1914, stated that under the current curriculum there is a very real distinction made between elementary and more advanced work, but in practice the dividing line falls shortly after the close of the freshman year. (4)

After a few years of experience with this plan of organization, it seemed advisable to mark [sic] the completion of the Junior College course with some formal recognition. For two or three years the University had under consideration a proposal to confer a degree upon these students, the new degree to be termed "Associate." The proposal was finally rejected, on the around that it would cheapen all decrees, especially those of the University of Chicago. The word "degree" was then replaced by the word "title," which proved acceptable, and in the April, 1900, Convocation, the title of Associate in Arts, Literature, and Science was conferred upon those who had completed the work of the Junior Colleges, a custom which is continued to the present time. (31-p.458)

Another of President Harper's innovations which has affected the junior college movement in general was the [p. 6] university affiliations. Because he planned for a university in fact, and because he believed that the university should hold a place of wide influence and usefulness, and that it should be a source of strength and inspiration to the smaller, institutions of the Middle West, he proposed a scheme for the affiliation of these colleges with the university. In his judgment, the number of colleges offering a four years' course was far in excess of the number equipped to provide efficient college training, and many of them could render a more effective and worthy service if they were to limit their work to the freshman and sophomore years and concentrate effort and resources on that and the preparatory department. (35) The original plan for affiliation has been abandoned, but the principle has survived in the system of cooperation between the university and a number of high schools and academies. In connection with this system, annual conferences are held at the University, the graduates of approved schools are received without examination, and scholarships are granted them for excellence in their preparatory studies. (31)

Occasional reference appears in the literature to earlier activity tending toward adoption of the junior college idea. Correspondence addressed to the authorities at the Universityof [sic] Pennsylvania in the early 80s by President James, of the University of Illinois, suggested [p. 7] the wisdom of sane such plan and some action of the universities regarding its adoption in their relations to colleges and high schools. This correspondence seems to have resulted in no definite action. (16)

            The University of Michigan in 1882 offered to those of its students who had completed the required work of the first two years a choice between the usual credit system and the "university system" in the completion of their work. Under the university system the student was not held to complete a fixed number of courses, but was permitted to select, subject to approval, three lines of study, to be pursued under direction of a faculty committee, along the lines of major and minor work, receiving his degree at the end of the course after having satisfactorily passed the prescribed examinations and presented a thesis. The object of this system was to secure the advantages of such specialization as is possible to students in this stage of development. The plan has never met with great favor, as the vast majority of students prefer to take their work under the credit system. (37)
           The University of Michigan, in the same decade, was encouraging the upward extension of the high school by receiving into advanced standing students from post-graduate classes in the East Side High School, of Saginaw. (16) This cooperative arrangement continued for several years, [p. 8] but was finally abandoned, altho [sic] other high schools of the State are now in similar cooperation with the University.
            Experiments multiplied slowly from the first permanent junior college department established in the Township High School, at Joliet, Illinois. In 1907 the junior college idea was placed upon a definite legal basis in the State of California and within the next four years leading educators in a few other states were acting upon a conviction that the junior college was an acceptable solution for problems arising from the need for higher educational opportunities in the public schools in large centers of population and for the unification of secondary and higher education.
[p. 9]

A background for the study of the junior college may be sought in the development of the American high school and the college.

Secondary education in America began with the Latin grammar school of the colonial period. In Massachusetts it was established after the college, for practically the sole purpose of preparation for the college, and was intended only for those youth whose education would be continued in the college. With the college it shared the ideal of education as a basis for public service in the commonwealth, such service to be rendered by an intelligent ministry in the churches and by an intelligent leadership in civic life.

In 1647 the General Court of Massachusetts passed an act providing that every township of fifty households should appoint a teacher of reading and writing, the teacher to be paid by the parents or masters of the children attending, or by the inhabitants in general; and that every town of one hundred families should set up a grammar school, in which the youth might be instructed and fitted for university study. Harvard University had been established in 1636. The people of the colony thus took upon themselves the burden of providing a relatively expensive system of liberal education, and their legislation, served [p. 10] as a precedent for much of the educational activity in the other colonies.

In the south, geographical and industrial factors changed the whole situation. In South Carolina and Virginia for example, the scattering of the people over wide areas discouraged the development of a central school system, and instead of introducing the English school into these colonies, as Massachusetts had done, it was more practicable to send the youth to England for the opportunities of higher education, beyond that which they received at home from private tutors. The school systems of the southern states are, therefore, of later development than those in the northeast.

Following the Great Awakening of the second quarter of the eighteenth century, religious influence upon education was manifested in the establishment of secondary schools by religious bodies which feared the taint of heresy in the existing schools and at the same time desired more wideapread [sic] facilities for education, in keeping with the new ideas of individual liberty and worth. The development, of industry and commerce, the rise of the new republic, and the expansion westward, were other factors contributing to a great advance in democratic spirit.

            During the half century following the Revolution, the academy was established as the accepted institution for [p. 11] secondary education. It represented a revolt from the college-preparatory nature of the grammar school, in favor of more liberal culture and courses of more practical value to those students who would not attend college. Classical studies were still arranged with reference to college entrance requirements, but the curriculum was extended to include English language and literature, history, certain branches of natural science, such as chemistry and geography, and occasionally a modern foreign language, ethics, and practical psychology. Private support and the charges paid by students enabled the academies to increase their courses and the number of teachers employed, and made them successful rivals of the grammar schools.
           The new colleges growing up in the western and southern states, where secondary schools were still few and weak generally found it necessary to maintain preparatory departments, which were known as academies, and it not infrequently came about that the academy attained a greater importance than the college department itself.
           But the academy in its turn was replaced by the public high school, a development of the nineteenth century. Its primary claim to favor was the change in financial support. Tuition charges in the academies were prohibitive for large numbers of children and a conviction arose and became widespread that the State should provide a continuous system of [p. 12] education, culminating in the university. Friends of the academy continued to place their faith in endowment, believing that the public, which was already supporting the elementary schools by taxation, would not be willing to be taxed with the support of the high schools, with whose work it was far less familiar. But the high schools increased in number from eighty at the middle of the nineteenth century to 6,000 at its close. In the following decade the number of schools and the number of pupils increased more than 70 per cent and the number of teachers more than 100 per cent. The total number of students receiving secondary education in the public high schools in 1914 was reported by Commissioner Claxton as almost a million and a quarter (1,241,218). In percentage of increase, the enrollment in elementary education in recent years has about kept pace with the population, while the percentage of increase in high school enrollment was about three times the increase in population in the corresponding period.
           This phenomenal growth in numbers has been accompanied by an interest which has placed the high school under searching and constructive criticism covering all points of relations in the school system and its contribution to national life. The subject of secondary education at the present time occupies a prominent place in educational thought, and the points of consideration include all phases [p. 13] of its activity -- the training of the high school teachers, methods of instruction, supervised study, curricula, vocational guidance, vocational training, physical training, tests of mental aptitudes and abilities, uniform standards for grading the work done, religious training, social activities, failures and student mortality, and continuation schools for those students who are unable to complete the desired courses in regular sessions. Not least in importance is the problem of affiliation of the secondary school with the grades below and above, and finally, the delimitation of the secondary school, as to what is its scope, where it shall begin and where it shall end. That the four years covering grades nine, ten, eleven and twelve as the high school period, is anything but an arbitrary or chance arrangement which has grown up with the American school system, no one seems prepared to deny. Dr. Judd has suggested that the age of fourteen as a division point in the educational course is an inheritance of the church confirmation age. (39) At least there seems to have been no logical, physiological or psychological basis for the division made between the elementary and the high school ago, and observations in recent years indicate that a change in the point of division promises a better adaptation of the school system to the needs of the pupils. A downward extension of the high school to include grades seven [p. 14] and eight is the change proposed. At the other end of the high school course, the larger universities are complaining that they are forced to give too great a part of their time and strength to the teaching of subjects which are really secondary in character. These subjects are embraced in the required work of the freshman and sophomore years of the undergraduate course, and an upward extension of the high schools to take over this work is greatly desired by these universities. To meet the demands of both extensions, the high school is charged with eight years of training, instead of the former four years.
           The downward extension of the high school, in varying forms, is characterized as the junior high school, or intermediate high school, while the upward extension is accorded post-graduate high school, or junior college, rank.
           The essential aim in the junior high school is a change in curriculum and methods to meet new ideals of the best service which the school may render to the pupils concerned. It is claimed that six years is a sufficient period for acquiring the "tools of education" and that the pupil's time in the elementary seventh and eighth grades is occupied to a large extent in futile reviews, wasteful of his time and deadening to his interest. The junior high school, with its curriculum revised for the special needs of these grades, not only eliminates the waste of time, but makes a [p. 15] strong appeal to the youth just then entering upon adolescence, in offering new subjects of interest, a degree of freedom in the choice of his work, and emphasis upon a "life motive." Thru departmental instruction it gives contact with a greater number of teachers, each a specialist in his subject of instruction, and it affords a break in the gap between elementary and high school methods which resulted formerly in the great student mortality in the first high school year. Critics there are and objections to certain features, especially the undemocratic cleavage between classes at this early age on the basis of "probable future employment" in the pre-vocational training (46), but the movement gains momentum and a study completed recently offers an opinion that, "If a complete canvass were made of all the cities in the United States, it would probably be found that the nation is pretty well committed to the plan of reorganizing its schools on a broad ‘junior-high-school' plan. (27)
           The post-graduate extension of the high school, or junior college department, is as yet neither so generally established nor so well incorporated into school systems as the junior high school. Its location is mainly in the cities and larger towns of the middle west and California in the west, as over against the east, where colleges and universities are more thickly set, and the south, where [p. 16] education has been delayed in development by the poverty following the devastation of the Civil War. In the states of the west and the middle west, resources are plentiful and educational systems are still in the making. The state universities, either by legal right or by popular recognition, have taken a leading part in working for close articulation throughout the state school systems. Naturally their first point of contact was with the high schools, as the direct sources of university enrollment. A notable part of the effort to secure cooperation between university and secondary school is the system of inspection of the schools and accrediting of those whose equipment and quality of instruction measure up to a standard established by the University. The accrediting system began in the University of Michigan in 1871. In that State the university was founded as the head of the school system, and oversight of the schools is its legal and lawful right and duty. Without any such legal provision in other States, the universities have followed the lead of Michigan, and the schools have submitted, sometimes willingly, hoping for an adjustment which would secure better advantages to both institutions, sometimes not so willingly, but of necessity, to secure the best advantages for their students in institutions for higher education. The state universities, state supported , and holding a position of leader- [p. 17] ship in the solution of many problems confronting the state, (53) has been allowed to assume direction in educational matters, even under more or less opposition of the state departments of education, although at times in close cooperation with them. The standardizing of the high schools resulting from visitation and accrediting has been one fact or in bringing many of them to their present high-grade condition, which makes the upward extension possible. A changing ideal of democratic education is also in process of evolution. Equal opportunity, which formerly implied the right of all children to the same form of education, a form largely college-preparatory in character, is fast approaching interpretation as the right of each child to an education adapted to his own particular talents and abilities. With the increasing numbers of pupils in high school, there is an increasing desire for further study. The junior college in the public schools affords this opportunity.
           Aside from the high school extension, there is a great need throughout the south and middle west for some system of classification to bring order out of the "educational chaos" resulting from the superabundance of colleges. Many were unwisely located, sometimes two or three in one small town. Commissioner Claxton is authority for the statement that, in a total of 567 colleges reporting in 1914, 246 [p. 18] were operating on annual incomes of less than $30,000, and 328 on less than $50,000.(24) Strong pressure of sentiment is being brought to bear upon these colleges either to unite for more efficient. work, as some few of them have done, or to limit their courses of study. The general plan for such limitation is to restrict the course to the freshman and sophomore years, the college taking the name and rank of a junior college.
[p. 19]

The law under which the junior college is maintained in California was passed by the Legislature in 1907. Its simple provision is that:

The high-school board of any high-school district, or trustees of any county high school, may prescribe post graduate courses of study for the graduates of such high school, or other high schools, which courses of study shall approximate the studies prescribed in the first two years of university courses. The high-school board of any high-school district, or trustees of any high school wherein such post graduate courses of study are taught, may charge tuition for pupils living without the boundaries of the district or county wherein such courses are taught.

            Geographic conditions and the distribution of the institutions for higher education in California demand that the public schools provide education in advance of the four year high school. The massing of the population in several important centers of the State is another factor in determining the need for and the desirable locations for junior colleges. The larger population areas, in order of numbers, are those about San Francisco, Los Angeles, Sacramento in the Sacramento Valley, Fresno in the San Joaquin Valley, and San Diego in the extreme south.
           The fourteen colleges and universities reported by the United States Bureau of Education for 1916 as the higher institutions in California are grouped in the two large [p. 20] centers, with the two great universities, - the University of California and Leland Stanford Junior University - in close proximity in the northern half of the state. Between and to the north and south of these two centers are great distances which must be traversed by students ambitious to continue their study beyond the high school. From the two universities, some sections of the State are farther removed, by existing railroad connections, than the distance from New York to Chicago. (44) Aside from the financial consideration, parents are loath to send young students so far from home for the greater part of the year. Educational leaders in the two universities, in particular, President David Starr Jordan, of Leland Stanford, and Dr. Alexis F. Lange, of the Department of Education in the University of California, favored the passage of the law for high school extension aid have given continuous encouragement to the junior colleges.
           The experiment in high school extension was begun at Fresno in the central valley of the State in June, 1910, when the city superintendent of the Fresno schools sent out a circular letter to patrons of the schools and to the principals of neighboring high schools. Encouraged by the many favorable replies which were received, the local board of education authorized the superintendent to begin the two years of post graduate work the following September. No [p. 21] institution of higher education existed within two hundred miles of Fresno where students might continue their study beyond the regular high school courses. The junior college was established with the following general aims:
1.To give to young people in this section of the state, who cannot afford to go to either of the universities an opportunity to continue their studies at home.

2.To provide practical courses in agriculture, manual training, domestic science, and other technical work in addition to the regular academic courses.

3.To carry students thru the first two years of a college course, thus enabling them to complete a four year's course with but two years residence at the university.
           A separate faculty and the necessary equipment were provided and twenty students were enrolled in the first year. It was the purpose of the authorities to have a separate student body and in every way possible to impress upon students and the public at large that the work of the junior college was of distinctly college character. In three years the enrollment had doubled. About one-third [sic] the attendance was non-resident students from near-by high schools, who paid a tuition charge of four dollars per month, the same as in the regular high school.
           In its third year the superintendent reported that the junior college was not attracting to it all or even a comparatively large number of students in that section of the state who were pursuing college courses, nor was such a result expected or desired. A new institution, without [p. 22] adequate funds or equipment, could not care for the hundreds who take up higher educational work. On the other hand, "it is often desirable to throw the young high-school graduate on his own responsibility for a time by severing home relationships. It is not, therefore, the aim of this institution to take over the entire responsibility of doing the first two years of college work. While authorities in both of the California universities seen to look forward to the time when they will be entirely relieved of this first two years of college work, it will require substantial aid from the state, and years of effort and experimentation, with earnest co-operation on the part of the universities, to bring about such a result." (44)
           The following year a junior college was established at Santa Barbara, a coast city still farther removed from the universities than is Fresno.
           At the opening of the second semester of that year, February, 1912, post graduate work was offered in one high school in the city of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Junior College was built upon a city school system in which were ten intermediate schools and seven high schools. Each of the high schools has its individual bias. One of these, the Los Angeles High School, with an enrollment of about 2,000 students, is distinctly academic in character and is the only high school in the city offering instruction in [p. 23] Greek. Another, with an equal enrollment, specializes in offering technical training, both for immediate use and as preparation for advanced technical courses.
           At Gardena, a small suburb included in Greater Los Angeles, and situated between the city and the sea, the high school is specializing in agriculture. A half dozen of the older boys are granted the privilege of living on the experiment farm of fourteen acres to look after the stock and do the routine work. Small experimental plots are given to other boys and girls. Landscape gardening -and elementary forestry are correlated with the other courses, and all girls who graduate must take domestic science, unless especially excepted.
           At the port city of San Pedro, with a population of 6,000, the high school offers the usual literary, scientific, mechanical and commercial courses, but is specializing in marine biology and marine engineering.
           Hollywood High School, in a wealthy residential district, with 1,500 pupils, alms at a study of "home-making disciplines." Four of its thirteen courses are college preparatory; the others are in science, English, commerce, mechanic arts, agriculture, art, home economies, and language and music. (30)
           Upon this system of high schools the junior college was established, first in connection with the Los Angeles [p. 24] High School and more recently at Hollywood. The first college class organized in the Los Angeles High School enrolled thirty-seven students for the first freshman semester. The following year the full course for freshmen was offered and since then the sophomore courses have been added. Graduates of high schools are eligible to [sic] admission to the freshman class; but only such as can satisfy the matriculation requirements of the University can earn University credit.
           As in the Fresno Junior College, separate provision is made for the junior college students in matters relating to class rooms, library, laboratory, student organization and faculty.
           The present enrollment includes students who have graduated from high schools in various parts of the State and in other States, and some who have completed the freshman course in another institution, which adds to the student body "that variety of preparation and previous experience which is of itself a valuable element in college life."
           Each student is expected to take sixteen hours of work a week and not more than eighteen hours, except by special permission.

In 1913 Bakersfield in the central valley established a junior college with an enrollment of ten freshmen, and [p. 25] Fullerton, in the south, began with a class of twenty-eight.
For the year 1915-1916, the Commissioner of Secondary Education in California made the following report of junior colleges and their enrollment: (55 - p. 20)

	First Year		Second Year
High School	Men	Women	Men	Women	Total
Concord*		2			2
Fresno	49	38	14	6	107
Imperial	1	4	1	2	8
Bakersfield	14	5	3	1	23
Azusa	7	30			37
Long Beach	20	59			79
Hollywood	25	60	5	12	102
Los Angeles City	188	175	42	36	441
San Fernando	4	3			7
Pasadena	8	53			61
Le Grande*		1			1
Fullerton	12	15	10	7	44
Orange	4	3			7
Santa Ana	7	19			26
Lincoln*		3			3
Auburn	8	5	5	2	20
San Diego	29	44	4	7	84
Santa Barbara	15	15	6	11	47
Yreka	1	15	1	1	17
Orosi*	1	1			2
Totals	393	550	92	84	1,118

A list of junior colleges in the state reported from the University of California in March, 1917, includes junior colleges not in the above list at Anaheim, Los Angeles Polytechnic High School, Ontario, Pomona, Riverside Girls' High School, Riverside Polytechnic, Sacramento and San Luis Obispo.

Dr. Cubberly {sic] anticipates that within the next twelve [p. 26] or fifteen years a junior college may be established in every county of any consequence in the State and that ultimately the University may be able to materially reduce and probably dispense with the freshman and sophomore work. (26)
Dr. Lange, at the University of California, has ventured a prophecy for the year 1950 that each county shall have "one such full grown high school definitely articulated with the other secondary schools and with the State University and designed not only to promote the general social efficiency of individuals and the community, hut also to train for high grade callings." Such an arrangement will be made possible by abandoning the present school district for the county district, which should be administered by a small elected county board of education and an appointed, professionally trained Superintendent to work jointly, under revised laws, for completeness and continuity of educational opportunities to the end of the period of adolescence and beyond. (42)

One of the arguments in favor of submitting the lower division work to the junior college is that these courses do not require the expensive library and laboratory facilities of the later university work. The junior colleges have not established courses requiring a large outlay of expense. Physics, chemistry, and agriculture are the [p. 27] usual courses offered which demand laboratory equipment. Fresno purchased, at the beginning of its experiment, books and special equipment for scientific and mathematical instruction amounting to $1,500 and estimated the extra expense for salaries for the first year as $3,200, counting actual time devoted to the junior college courses. (44)
Estimates of the annual cost per pupil in other schools have been made in the following amounts:

Principal Engle, at Auburn, thinks "it is entirely safe to say that when the junior colleges are fully developed, the teaching cost per capita, barring the expense of installing laboratories, will not be a cent higher than the per capita cost for high school pupils." Commissioner Wood calls attention to the fact that these estimates are based upon courses established in accordance with the present law and thinks the expense will undoubtedly be larger than the cost per pupil in the high school when the junior college is expanded to its proper place in the school system. He also cautions against establishing junior colleges unless the communities are already well provided with elementary school facilities and are able to support the junior college in addition to the lower school.
[p. 28]

The junior college is Missouri is the small college standardized and given definite recognition in a state school system. In contrast with the college situation in California, Missouri has about forty institutions doing work above secondary grade, serving a population of almost three and a half millions.
For the twenty-one of these institutions included in the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1916, the total annual receipts varied from more than a million and a quarter of dollars at the University of Missouri to $22,000, $18,000 and less than $11,000 as the lowest report. The University of Missouri is the only one under State control; Washington University and two others are listed as non-sectarian, and the remainder are denominational schools, as follows:

            From this tabulation, it is obvious that the problem of the small college in Missouri is largely a problem of the small denominational college. Enrollment in these colleges varied from about 3,000 in the University of [p. 29] Missouri, to eighty-five in a St. Louis college for women, in which sixty were preparatory and twenty-five were college students.
           Standardization of the junior colleges grew out of the successes attending the standardizing of the State school system. Formerly, under independent direction, the country schools were not preparing their pupils for entrance to the town high schools and the high schools were not preparing their graduates to do work of college grade. The State Department of Education and the University of Missouri secured a better articulation of the State school system by inspection and accrediting of the high schools on a basis of minimum requirements. For the betterment of rural schools, in addition to the courses offered in normal schools and in college departments of education, certain high schools are now offering teacher training courses to third and fourth year pupils who plan to teach in the rural schools.
           The results or the cooperation established between the high schools and the university gradually became evident in the higher quality of work done in the high schools and their rise in the public esteem. This reacted to the further disparagement of the smaller colleges, which were already struggling under burdens of inadequate endowment, poor equipment, and scarcity of students. These [p. 30] colleges were not closely articulated with schools above or below their grade. In general, they were offering a preparatory course in secondary subjects and some instruction in advance of the secondary school. Their lack of affiliation with standard institutions giving advanced courses made it impossible alike to attract the best students or to inspire in those who did come a desire for high grade work and continued study in a higher institution. Further, the financial needs often caused a lowering of scholarship standards in favor of numbers and tuition receipts; while requirements for entrance and for graduation, for adequate equipment and efficient teachers were determined by the competition for students and the dearth of income.
           With the growth of the high schools in efficiency, it was evident that the life of these colleges depended upon their affiliation with the educational system. In 1911 they requested the University to include then in its system of accrediting. The University worked out a plan for their affiliation as junior colleges, offering the work of the freshman and sophomore years of a college course in addition to the preparatory work. The plan was determined largely by two considerations: (1) two years of work in advance of the accredited secondary schools was about the average amount of work which this group of colleges was [p. 31] offering, and (2) the recent movement to require a two-years course in advance of the secondary school as a preparation for the work of the professional schools, and the resulting division in the four-years' course in the College of Arts and Sciences in the University, made the close of the second year a logical division point in the college course.
           The minimum requirements determined by the University as a basis for accrediting junior colleges is as follows:
1. The requirements far admission to the work of the college must be the equivalent of those of the College of Arts and Science in the University of Missouri.

2. If a preparatory school is maintained in connection with the college, its work must be approved by the University of Missouri.

3.The course of study in the college must be two years in length; and the college year, thirty-six weeks.

4. For graduation from the college, the student must complete satisfactorily sixty hours of work, which must be the equivalent of that required in the first two years in the College of Arts and Science in the University of Missouri.

5. Students shall not be permitted to carry for credit work amounting to more than 16 hours a week.

6. There must be a sufficient number of teachers to conduct the work without crowding the classes, or without assigning to individual teachers an excessive amount or variety of work.

7. All college teachers should have had training equivalent to four years work in a standard college, and it is desirable that they should have completed one year's graduate work.

8. There must be a laboratory for physical science [p. 32] and a laboratory for biological science, each adequately equipped anti sufficiently large to permit easily of individual work upon the part of the students.

9. There must be an adequate library equipment.
10. The college must give satisfactory instruction in the work specified in the fourth requirement, and, in addition, must give satisfactory instruction in other courses which the student may take in completing the conditions for graduation.

The University reserves the right to cease to accredit at any time, a junior college that employs inefficient teachers, or that otherwise fails to maintain the required standard.

            The attitude of the University in taking the initiative in this work was that, as a member of the Association of American Universities, it represented standards which were the produce [sic] of nation-wide experience in education. Furthermore, its connection with the high schools of the State had been made upon the basis of these definite standards, and other schools, to be received into the cooperating system, should come in by changes to conform to the University standards, if change were necessary, rather than that the University should adjust its standards to include the newcomers. The authorities in the small colleges were invited to express opinion on any point in which they felt that the University failed to express the "logic of the situation" in planning the basis of affiliation, and were assured that their criticisms would be welcomed and carefully considered.
           The plan having been worked out, the matter of apply-[p. 33]ing for affiliation was left to the colleges. The University supplied a blank form of application, to be filled out by the college; if this seemed satisfactory, a committee of examiners visited the college, made a thoro examination, and submitted a detailed report to the University Committee on accrediting Junior Colleges. This committee took final action, accrediting the colleges when they met requirements. If a college failed to meet the minimum standard, its deficiency was made known to the authorities, so that they had something definite to guide them in making the improvements necessary for affiliation. In the case of every college examined, definite recommendations were made for desirable improvements, including buildings, administration, teaching, and even such minute matters in equipment as lists of books for the library and lists of laboratory apparatus.
           The work of accrediting was begun in 1911; in 1913 four colleges were accredited, and in January, 1915, seven colleges had affiliated with the University in the junior college relation. These were all colleges for young women. The seven were organized as the Missouri Junior College Union, for the consideration of their common problems. One important agreement which they reached was to make the junior college course four years in length, "extending from the second year of the high school to the junior year of [p. 34] the College of Liberal Arts and Science, with the maintenance temporarily of, a two years preparatory course," which may be abolished later.

            Affiliation with the University has resulted in better equipment, uniform entrance and graduation requirements, a higher grade of scholarship in the students, and more liberal support from the friends of the colleges, since the work is assured of recognition by the University and other standard institutions. (25)
           One of the gains accruing to the colleges as a result of their standardization is the recognition given them by the State Department of Education. Graduates of the junior college who have included twelve hours in Education in the course are granted a Three Years' State Certificate to teach in the graded schools of Missouri.
           The first seven colleges affiliated with the University of Missouri as junior colleges are listed in the report which follows: (33)

In March, 1915, the University of Missouri added to the list of accredited junior colleges, Pritchett-College, Glasgow, Mo., coeducational, and the Kansas City Junior [p. 35] College, an extension of the city high school. The University is encouraging high school extension in the larger cities and the experiment is now under way in the city of St. Joseph.
President Wood, of Stephens College, Missouri, believes that the junior college will be able to render a real service in the school system in the care of adolescents. Few of the smaller colleges are in face co-educational and this he believes is an important consideration in secondary education. Little thought has been given to the desirability of separate classes for adolescent boys and adolescent girls in the high school, but President Wood thinks the best development of both boys and girls will be secured thru courses especially adapted to their own needs. The junior college also affords a period of easy transition from dependence upon home influences and direction to one of general oversight and self-direction before the student takes up the problem of adjustment to the numbers and the distractions of university life. (54)

On the rank of its graduates in the University of Missouri, Hardin Junior College reports that at the Commencement in June, 1916, in a class of two hundred ten graduating with the degree A. B., the University granted Phi Beta Kappa honors to nine women. Two of the nine were graduates of Hardin Junior College class of 1914. Five members of the 1916 class at the University were Hardin graduates.
Hardin Junior College also reports that it has had practically junior college rating with the University of Missouri since 1901, when, after examination of its work, the examining committee recommended that A. B. graduates of Hardin College be allowed 54 hours credit on the A.B. course in the university. (21)
[p. 36]

Practically junior college standing is accorded the normal schools in several states, thru acceptance by the universities of credentials for work done in the normal school which is equivalent to the work prescribed in the university. Such credit is limited to 60 hours in a few states, and to lesser amounts in others which have established a ruling in the matter.
What is practically legal recognition of the normal schools in the junior college relation to the school system was enacted in 1911 in Wisconsin in the following provision:

The Board of Normal School Regents may extend the course of instruction in any normal school, so that any course, the admission to which is based upon graduation from an accredited high school or its equivalent may include the substantial equivalent of instruction given in the first two years of a college course. Such course of instruction shall not be extended further than the substantial equivalent of the instruction given in the first two years of such course without the consent of the legislature.

This legislation creates additional centers for the early years of college training. Commissioner Claxton regards it as a proceeding of doubtful wisdom, since it will tend to "subdivide the already inadequate facilities for the training of teachers."

Educational facilities in the northeastern section of the United States were well established before the settlement of the western states began. The strongly endowed colleges and universities founded long ago by private philanthropy have had an existence independent of state control, and their number has been sufficient to supply the demand for higher education. These states have therefore neither a recognized need for junior college extension in their high schools nor for the standardization of small, poorly endowed colleges. In such circumstances, the junior college has found less favor here than in any other section of the country.

The Central High School of Springfield, Mass., plans to begin junior college work next September. Courses of freshman college grade will be offered in English, Latin, French, German, history, science and mathematics. The English, Latin and history courses are new courses in the school. In the other courses, French, German, science and mathematics, pupils have sometimes received advanced credit in college when these subjects were taken in the high school in addition to the full college entrance requirements. In the junior college, however, the content [p. 38] of these courses will be somewhat changed in accordance with the requirements of the freshman year in the colleges.

"The courses will he made up of thirteenth grade pupils; that is to say, pupils who have graduated from high school. The majority will doubtless have completed the regular college entrance requirement, but we shall not bar anyone from a course in Latin or French, for example, if he is well qualified for this course, simply because he has not done the work in mathematics and. history required for college entrance. We shall not refuse admittance to high school seniors of superior standing and. ability to these courses if we are positive that they are ready for them, but the pace will be set for college freshmen. We shall have some who do not intend to go away to college. We hope to be able to encourage some, who would not otherwise secure a college education, to make a start and perhaps to complete the four years course elsewhere later."

The Central High School has offered to cooperate with the City Library in the librarians' training course. In cooperation with the High School of Commerce it is working out a secretarial course. It is also planning to offer a two years pre-medical course which is now required by the leading medical schools.

Frank W. Nicolson, Secretary of the New England College Entrance Certificate Board, stated recently that he knew of no high school in New England, other than the Springfield school, that had established a junior college department. Students from the Springfield Junior College will probably be received at Wesleyan University on the same terms as candidates for advanced standing from other [p. 39] institutions, namely, that they would be given credit for such subjects as they could pass an examination upon. "Such examination is ordinarily waived, as a matter of courtesy, when an applicant comes from another college; but I doubt if it would be waived in the case of a high school that did a year's extra work."

The University of Vermont has "so far had no experience with junior colleges." It allows no credit toward a degree for post graduate work done in high school, either by certificate or examination, or after trial in the University. "Work completed at a college below standard rank receives no credit here, beyond possible application to entrance deficiencies."

Mr. Douglass, in his study of the Junior High School, found that the junior college is under consideration at Dudley, Mass., at North Troy, Vt., and at Curwensville, Pa. "No junior colleges have been organized in the State of Pennsylvania, nor have any colleges been reduced to the rank of junior colleges," is the report of the superintendent of public instruction of Pennsylvania.

The University of Pennsylvania grants no advanced credit even by examination for post-graduate work done in high school where the high school graduate has spent an additional year in high school taking certain subjects In [p. 40] class with undergraduates. It does allow credit for work done in "a definitely organized two-year college course as a part of the public school system, and distinct in its student body from the high school," when satisfied that the school is well organized and equipped and lives up to good standards.

No junior colleges have been established in New York State, and the question of crediting high school work towards college requirements has not been regularly organized. Most colleges give credit on satisfactory evidence for some high school work when such work is in advance or addition to the requirements for admission.

The assistant commissioner of education in charge of secondary schools in New Jersey writes that no junior colleges have been established in New Jersey in connection with the public school system. The City of Newark has discussed the matter, but New York University this year offered the freshman and sophomore years' work of its College of Arts and Sciences in both day and evening classes in the City of Newark, and this fact will doubtless check public interest in the junior college movement in that city. Post-graduate courses, as such, have not been added to the regular courses in any of the high schools.

Delaware is now occupied with a movement towards making all its high schools four year schools. The junior [p. 41] college movement has made no headway as yet, and the high schools "offer practically no post-graduate work."

Maryland has no junior colleges, but three high schools offer one year's work in Education. In general, full credit is given in the colleges for work done in the high schools in excess of college entrance requirements.

The junior college in the Southern States is in general a product of standardization whose purpose is to bring all the high schools up to a standard four-year course, to limit an over-abundance of small colleges to the work which they can do thoroly [sic] and satisfactorily, and to strengthen an adequate but comparatively small number of the stronger colleges for the higher courses of instruction. This is on the whole largely a problem in centralization, with the state institutions already far in the lead in practically all the states, if one may judge from the tabulation of annual incomes reported by the Commissioner of Education.

At least the four of these colleges located at Marion, Abingdon, Roanoke and Bristol are colleges for women. They are classified on a very broad and indefinite standard, in contrast with the definite standard adopted in Missouri. The Virginia State Board of Education, in May, 1912, adopted a resolution:

That on and after June 1, 1914, the Virginia Board of Education will recognize only three grades of academic institutions above the grade of the high school, viz., the junior college, the college and the university. An institution to be registered as a junior college must present satisfactory evidence that it is doing at least the freshman and sophomore work of a standard college. The junior college may confer a diploma of graduation, but shall not confer any titled degree.

In January, 1915, the State Board of Education adopted the following resolution:

No Institution shall be registered as a university, a college, or a junior college until it has been inspected by a representative of the board, and the board has acted favorably upon the report of its representative.

A circular of information concerning the certification of teachers contains the following paragraph:

Junior College Certificate -- The graduate of a registered institution in Virginia which does not comply fully with the definition of a college, but which offers an approved four-year course, at least two years in advance of the standard four-year high school, with at least one year's work of college grade in English, History, Mathematics, and Science, shall be granted a Junior College Certificate. This certificate shall continue in force for five years and may be renewed for a similar period from time to time.... A Junior College Certificate may also be granted to an undergraduate in a registered college in [p. 44] Virginia, who has completed two full years or more of college work. This certificate entitles the holder to teach both high and elementary school branches.

The State Board of Education has requested the Association of Virginia Colleges to frame regulations for a better classification for junior colleges, and such a committee has been appointed in that association and in the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.

From the Universities of South Carolina and Mississippi, replies were received stating or indicating that there are no junior colleges in these states. Arkansas has but one, namely. Crescent College at Eureka Springs. Its graduates are admitted to junior standing in the University of Arkansas.

The University of Alabama admits to advanced standing, graduates of the normal schools at Florence, Jacksonville, Livingston, and Troy; of the Alabama Girls' Technical Institute, St. Bernard College, Marion Institute, and Spring Hill College. The University bulletin, which is the source of this information, does not state whether full credit is allowed for the work in these institutions.

Georgia has "only one school in which work is recognized by almost all departments (of the State University) as equivalent to Freshman work -- The Academy of Richmond County, of Augusta. Yet the work in Chemistry, for instance, is not recognized there. In all other cases [p. 45] credit is given only in some of the subjects, and each case is treated separately. Our general rule is that successful examination in a subject entitles to credit, but such cases are rare....We have a committee at work on the junior college problem, but none have yet been recognized. We are treating all but the standard colleges as high schools."

Weaver College, North Carolina, was reorganized in 1912 as a junior college, under control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. The course of study embraces a high school course and two years of college work, and it is so standardized that a student .may transfer from Weaver College to any other standard school of the Church at any time without loss of class standing. From its catalogue the following expression of attitude is quoted:

In all this mountain section of North Carolina there is no institution of full college grade. With more than half a million native white Americans we are without the means of higher education. Feeling that the great essential things in a college education are to be found in the first two years of the college course, we are throwing all our efforts into these years and are striving to give our students a high class preparatory course and two years of first class college work. We do not for a moment let our students believe that this should end their college work. On the other hand, nearly all our graduates now prosecute their studies in A-grade colleges, and graduate with honor. But we lay the foundations and place them in a position whereby they may secure the funds necessary for such further work.

Weaver College is the only junior college in the State which is recognized by the University of North [p. 46] Carolina. From it the University receives only one or two students a year and each is treated as an individual case. In general, the University grants students from this college almost full credit for strictly college work.

The inquiry addressed to Louisiana State University was answered in part as follows:

None of the high schools offer post-graduate work in separate classes, or any subjects in advance of the regular high school courses. A few of the best ones offer third and fourth year work in French, Trigonometry and English which is practically the equivalent of our freshman work. We permit examinations for college credit in this work provided the applicant offers an excess of high school work both in subject matter and in time....There are five or six colleges in the state which give courses at study about equivalent to the work of the freshman and sophomore classes, hut no attempt is made by these institutions to affiliate with the standard colleges and universities. When a graduate of one of these “freshwater colleges” applies for admission to the State University we make the best adjustment we can of his work. It is rather troublesome but since only their beat graduates have sufficient judgment to go on for higher work, we very seldom lave trouble with deficiencies on their part....

The State Department of Education has made a ruling which may result in Standardizing to a certain degree the smaller institutions. The State Department has ruled that the high school courses must contain four sessions of thirty-six weeks each, devoted to secondary studies, and that the colleges must offer four sessions of the same length and must require for admission to these courses the completion of a four-year high school course. Further, the normal schools, that is, the schools which offer courses in Education and the graduates of which are exempt from teachers’ examinations, must offer a two-year course above the high school.

The College Section of the Texas State Teachers’ Association adopted minimum requirements for junior colleges [p. 47] which are outlined as follows:

2. It should add thereto two years of college work, or fifteen sixty-minute hours per week of recitations each year.

3. If courses are offered in science, above the academy, then it should have laboratory equipment sufficient for all the experiments called for by such courses -- sufficiency to be measured by the value of the apparatus, which shall be, in chemistry not less than $1,000, in physics not less than $2,000, in biology not less than $l,500.

4. It should have a library of not fewer than 2,000 volumes bearing specifically upon the subjects taught.

5. It should maintain at least five departments with a professor exclusively in charge of each. In the nature of the case, other teachers would be required. They might be assistant professors or instructors in more than one department each. As speedily as possible such schools should go from five to six and seven, and even more, full professors. The library and laboratories should not lag in constant growth.

6. No teacher should be required to do more than twenty-five hours per week of class-room work.

7. No student should be allowed to do more than fifteen hours of class-room work per week on a basis of 60 year—hours for graduation, i.e., as a rule the student should be allowed only one-fourth of his degree work per year, unless a student is a conditioned freshman with only half of his work in advance. A student may take, in addition to fifteen hours, a given amount of music or other fine arts.

8. The equipment of the teachers should be approximately equal to that of college teachers.

An elaborate scheme of classification accompanies this standard, under which the junior colleges are grouped in four classes:

Junior Colleges of Class A Plus are those which meet in full the above criteria. Their students should receive hour for hour credit.

Junior Colleges of Class A are those which approximate the standard requirements, but fall short in certain particulars. Their students should receive a maximum credit of thirteen session hours per year.

Junior Colleges of Class B are those which, while of collegiate character and standards, fall short in more important particulars. Their students should receive approximately three-fourths credit upto a maximum of eleven session hours per year.

Junior Colleges of Class C are those which, while organized are designated as colleges, appear to be in reality little better than secondary schools. Their students may receive approximately one-half credit up to a maximum of seven and one-half session hours per year.

College	Location	Science approved
Alexander Collegiate Institute	Jacksonville	Chemistry
Burleson College	Greenville	Chem. & Physics
Meridian College	Meridian	Chemistry
Decatur Baptist College	Decatur	None
North Texas Female College	Sherman	None
Saint Mary’s College	Dallas	None
[p. 49]
San Antonio Female College	San Antonio	None
Stamford College	Stamford	Physics
Thorp Spring Christian College	Thorp Spring	None
Wesley College	Greenville	Chem. & Physic
Westminster College	Tehuacana	None

School and Society, April 14, 1917, reported that the Texas Legislature, just adjourned, established two junior colleges, “one located at Stephenville.... where the buildings and grounds of the John Tarleton College are taken over by the Trustees of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas as the first of the junior agricultural colleges. The citizens of Stephenville and Erath County have subscribed a fund of $25,0O0 to be used as a student loan fund and have donated, in addition to the campus and buildings, 500 acres to be used as experimental, or demonstration, farm land in connection with the college.”

“The second junior college is established at Arlington... where the property of a small military academy is transferred to the state, and a similar loan fund and donation of land is to be made by the citizens of the adjacent territory.”

Ohio has no junior colleges recognized as such, but has “a number of small institutions trying to give four years of college work when they should be attempting only two years.” The Ohio State University gives about two years’ credit on admission to graduates of these institutions.

The University gives no college credit for work completed in high school except in one instance:

If a graduate of a recognized high school presents seventeen or more units and six of these are in Foreign Language, for example, four in Latin and two in German, we give credit for four units for regular admission and stamp on the student’s admission card that he is eligible for examination In the two years of extra Foreign Language for one year’s college credit; that in order to secure this credit he must see the Head of the Department in which this language naturally falls before October 1st. Those who do not take the examination forfeit the right and also the claim for any college credit.

Indiana University has been considering the question of inspection and accrediting as junior colleges those of the smaller colleges and normal schools of the State which are willing to submit to such inspection. The University has accredited the East Chicago High School for one year of graduate work in a very limited number of subjects. The work in that school was laid out under direction of the Faculty of Indiana University and has been inspected and approved so that one year of credit is allowed for the [p. 51] for fifth-year courses in modern European history and the history of art.

From this initial stage in the recognition of postgraduate work in the high schools, the University was next drawn to a consideration of the junior college as such. The question was raised when in 1913-14 the Crane Technical School, the Albert G. Lane Technical High School, also in Chicago, and the Joliet School asked for recognition of the graduate departments which they, by that time, had organized as junior colleges. After careful inspection arid consideration, the University worked out a standard for accrediting junior colleges, which was submitted to the superintendent of the Chicago schools and the principals of the three high schools. These officers expressed approval and cooperation. The standards worked out at that time were practically those which are now in force:

1. Enrollment --To be considered for accrediting, a junior college should have an enrollment of not less than 50 students of college grade.

2. Limitation on Admission of High-School Students — The admission of high-school students to junior-college classes should be limited to students of senior standing arid of superior scholarship; “superior scholarship” being interpreted to mean a rank within the first third of the class. The number of even these picked high-school seniors in any junior-college class should not in any case exceed one-half of the total membership of that class and should ordinarily be limited to one-third the total membership of the class.

3. Preparation of junior-college teachers -- The teachers in charge of the junior-college work in departments [p. 52] other than manual arts should have a bachelor’s degree and should have had in addition at least a year of graduate study in the subject of their department in a university of recognized standing.

4. Limitation of Teaching Schedule -- The teaching schedule of any instructor doing junior-college work should be limited to a maximum of twenty recitation periods (clock hours) per week.

5. The junior-college course should be organized and conducted on a collegiate as distinguished from a high-school basis. College texts should be used and should be supplemented with reference or other outside work of collegiate character, and the amount of ground covered in a semester should approximate that covered in corresponding college courses.

6. Equipment -- Junior-college classes should be provided with an adequate equipment of space and available laboratory and library facilities for strictly college work.

Another phase of junior college recognition in the state arose in 1915 when Blackburn College, unable to maintain a standard four-year college course, restricted its work to the freshman and sophomore years and asked for and received recognition by the University under the above criteria.

The list of junior colleges accredited in Illinois, correct to April 5, 1917, follows:

The University of Illinois has officially recognized junior colleges in other states as follows:

Graceland College, at Lamoni, Iowa, is the only institution in the State which is recognized by the University of Iowa as a junior college. Graceland College was established in 1895 by the Church of the Latter Day Saints and has lad a somewhat uncertain history at times; it is now under very able management. For several years the University required students from Graceland to “validate” their credits from the college by excellent records in the University in more advanced, or at least different courses in the several departments represented in their certificates. The records of these students in the University justified the recognition of Graceland as a junior college.

The Cedar Valley Junior College, Osage, Iowa, a Baptist institution, had applied recently for inspection and accrediting by the University of Iowa.

The people of Mason City, Iowa, have made provision for establishing a public junior college. It will be housed in the same building with the regular high school [p. 54] but there will be very little intermingling of junior college students in the same individual courses. The program of studies will be organized for the junior college classes on a 15-period-a-week basis and the work will be conducted in accordance with collegiate standards.

The University of Michigan makes sharp distinction between junior college work and post-graduate work in high school. Junior Colleges are maintained in the schools of Detroit and Grand Rapids. These have the same entrance requirements as the University, cover the same ground and in the same way and under the direction of instructors, some of whom were chosen from the teaching staff of the corresponding department in the University. Students receive full credit in the University for this work.

Students who attend high school at least one semester after graduation are granted partial credit in a few subjects, on examination or on successful completion of a subsequent course in the same branch in the University.

In the State of Minnesota the high schools at Cloquet, Rochester, Faribault and Hibbing are offering college studies under the junior college plan. Stanley Hall, at Minneapolis, and St. Thomas College, at St. Paul are doing work on the junior college basis.

The University of Minnesota has adopted “Standards for judging Minnesota schools offering one or two years of [p. 55] college work,” in which the main points are that:

The maximum amount of college work to be recognized shall be two years, but in no case shall a second year’s work be recognized until a school has for a reasonable length of time demonstrated its ability to do the first year’s work satisfactorily.

All persons giving instruction in such courses shall have done at least one full year’s work in a recognized graduate school (ordinarily one year of graduate work in addition to at least two years of undergraduate study in the subject taught) with special attention to the subjects which they teach, and they must also have at least two years’ successful experience as high-school teachers, or acceptable experience as college teachers.

Each instructor shall teach not more than two subjects in the college division, and shall not teach more than one five-period class in the high school.

Other provisions include adequate and annually increasing library facilities, annual renewal of recognition of the school, and reports from the University to each school, showing the record of each student in each subject in the University. The University has issued a bulletin of some forty pages on “Library and Laboratory Equipment for Schools Offering One Year of College Work.”

The University of North Dakota “has not been touched as yet by the junior college movement.” When an applicant seeking advanced standing in the University offers for credit post-graduate work in a high school, or work in a non-commissioned college, the case is considered on its individual merits. College credit is granted only as a result of examinations taken at the University. These may [p. 56] take the form of proof by the student that he is able to carry advanced work subsequent to the courses which he has offered for credit.

The University of South Dakota answered all inquiries by stating that the subject of advanced standing for students from high schools and normal schools was under discussion in the faculty.

The University of Nebraska gives only partial credit upon examination for post-graduate high school work in chemistry, Greek, mechanical drawing, solid geometry, trigonometry, third and fourth year German, French and Latin, and fourth year English. “Nebraska has no junior colleges, their work being discouraged in this State.”

Few of these states except California have been concerned with the junior college to any great extent. The Universities in at least five states, Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and New Mexico, grant a maximum of sixty hours college credit to graduates of normal schools, which is practically junior college rating of the normal schools.

The Universities of Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon reported no Junior Colleges in their respective states. The University of Oregon favors the movement, but does not at the present time grant full credit for any post-graduate work in high school.

The only junior colleges affecting the University of New Mexico have been accredited by some other State University, whose decision the University of New Mexico accepts. Advanced standing to high school graduates is given only in Trigonometry. The student offering this subject for college credit is allowed to take the next course in mathematics for which trigonometry is a prerequisite and if his work is satisfactory the acceptance of his credit in trigonometry is assured.

The University of Washington gives credit for postgraduate work in high school, “only after a student has been in residence for at least a semester in the University and then usually only in cases where the student has [p. 58] pursued advanced work along the same lines in the University with satisfactory grades. The amount of such credit is ordinarily scaled about one-half.”

The high school at Everett, Washington, has for two years offered a full fifth year of work corresponding in general to the freshman year in college. This work has been carefully inspected by the University authorities and full credit is allowed for it in all subjects which correspond to the University requirements. “Two or three private schools in the State have asked to have their fifth and sixth year work accredited by the University, and their cases are now under consideration by a special committee.”

The Idaho Technical Institute, at Pocatello, which is one of the State supported institutions, is the only junior college in that State. Post graduate work in high schools is sometimes allowed credit in the University of Idaho, in which case the basis is two years of high school work as equal to one year in the college.

The junior college movement is favored by many of the people of Montana, but there are as yet only a few private junior colleges in the State. The University of Montana grants a limited amount of credit for work done in fully accredited high schools in German, French, and mathematics, only. The credit in the languages is reduced one-half.

In addition to the state departments of education and the state universities, there are at least four other influences operating toward the standardization of educational institutions and reacting directly on the junior college movement. These are (1) the United States Bureau of Education, (2) the independent educational associations, (3) the church boards of education, and (4) certain associations concerned with professional training.

In the first group are included the National Education Association, the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, The New England Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland, the Association of American Universities and the Association of American Colleges. These associations have been effective in raising the standards for both high schools and colleges. There is now in the North Central Association a committee charged with the classification of the colleges which it represents. A joint committee, representing these associations and others has been asked to cooperate with the Bureau of Education in classifying the colleges [p. 60] according to their standards and equipment. The work of such committees moves slowly on this matter of great moment in the history of American colleges.

The various church boards of education have the problem in mind. The Methodist Episcopal Church, South, has defined the junior college and classified it among the denominational schools. The list includes:

Junior College	Location	Degree offered
Alexander Collegiate Inst.	Jacksonville, Tex.	No degree
Andrew College	Cuthbert, Ga.	A. A.
Blackstone College for Girls	Blackstone, Va.	.........
Central College for Women	Lexington, Mo.	A. A.
Clarendon College	Clarendon, Tex.	.....
Davenport College	Lenoir, N. C.	No degree
Hiwassee College	Sweetwater, Tenn.	No degree
Howard-Payne College	Fayette, Mo.	A. A.
Logan College	Russellville, Ky.	.....
Louisburg College	Louisburg, N. C.	No degree
Mansfield College	Mansfield, La.	M.E.L., L.I.
Martin College	Pulaski, Tenn.	No degree
Marvin College	Fredericktown, Mo.	A. A.
Memphis Conf. Female Inst.	Jackson, Tenn.	No degree
Meridian College	Meridian, Tex.	.....
Morris Harvey College	Barboursville, W. Va.	No deg.
North Texas College	Sherman, Tex.	No degree
San Antonio College	San Antonio, Tex.	No degree
Scarritt-Morrisville College	Morrisville, Mo.	A. A.
Stamford College	Stamford, Tex.	No degree
Weaver College	Weaverville, N.C.	.....
Wesley College	Greenville, Tex.	No degree
Young L.C. Harris College	Young Harris, Ga.	.....

Dr. Abram W. Harris, Secretary of the Board of [p. 61] Education of the Methodist Episcopal Church, writes that the University Senate has never taken official cognizance of the junior college. “The Board of Education of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the University Senate are deeply interested in the Junior College movement, but they have not yet become fully assured of its permanence in our educational system. We are watching its development in tbe Middle West very carefully.”

Secretary Frank W Padelford, of the Northern Baptist Convention, writes that his board has taken no action relative to standardizing junior colleges. “We have only three junior colleges related to our church, namely, Frances Shirner, Mt. Carroll, Ill., Hardin College, Mexico, Mo., Stephens College, Columbia, Mo. We are about to organize two other junior colleges, but it is tho early to make announcement of the fact. We have made one or two efforts to induce some of our senior colleges to become junior colleges but have not been successful in these efforts.”

The College Board of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America has never officially recognized the junior college as a specific type of institution. For lack of any better way to classify them, the Board has actually classified three schools as junior colleges, indicating that they stand between secondary schools and [p. 62] real college.

One further influence affecting the junior college movement is a tendency on the part of professional associations to require two years of college training for entrance to professional schools. The Council on Medical Education of the American Medical Association has a committee now collecting data on which to base a suggestive schedule of the two years of pre-medical college work which will be required for entrance to acceptable medical schools after January 1, 19l8. The present requirement is for one year of college work, consisting of

Dr. N. P. Colwell, Secretary of the Council, states that “the two years of premedical college work must amount to sixty semester hours, including the sciences named, and the work must be of a grade equal to that given in approved colleges in the course leading to the bachelor of science degree. In the suggestive schedule which is being prepared, it is quite probable that emphasis will be laid on certain courses, such as a reading knowledge of French or German, evidence of satisfactory work in English, and a course in Psychology.”

The diversity of aims and organization in the junior colleges thruout [sic] the country may be observed in their courses of study. It will be remembered that the junior colleges of California are as yet under the law which specifies that their courses "shall approximate the studies prescribed in the first two years of university courses." Typical courses are here presented.

Literary

Scientific

Pre-Social

Science

Pre-Law

Pre-Medicine Dentistry

Pharmacy

Pre-Mechanics

Mining, Civil Engineering

Grade 13

L5, ML5

H5, Ec5

M5, M3, Su5

C5, P5, B5

E5, L5, ML

(CE)

H5, Ec5

C5, P5, B5

E5, ML4

(CE)

H5, Ec5

C5, P5, B5

E5,ML, Lg5

Su5

H5, Ec5

C5, P5, (CE)

Grade 14

L6, ML5, ML6

M6, M5

(CE)

E6, P6, ML

(CE)

(CE), C6

(CE)

E6, ML

(CE) College electives, from high school undergraduate studies, comprising E3, E4, L3, L4, G2, G3, G4, F2, GD3, F3, F4, Sp. 2, Sp. 3, H3, M3, M4, C3, P5, So.& Ec4 .

Collegiate students who wish a major diploma for six-years' course and expect to continue work in the University with full standing take five full subjects for two years in order to qualify for the "Junior Certificate" at the University.

Collegiate students not intending to go to the University are free to elect any studies given in the high schoo1.

(B) denotes first term, (A) second term subjects. The number after abbreviations denotes the year in which the study regularly comes.

English - B13, Narration and Description
A13, Exposition and Argument
B14 and Al4, Types of literature
Elective Composition

Modern Oriental History (spring semester)
Modem European History (fall semester)
Western American History
Economics
Political Science

Algebraic Theory
College Algebra
Solid and Spherical Geometry
Plane Analytic Geometry
Differential & Integral Calculus
Surveying

Physical Training - Men's Gymnastics (three periods per wk)
Women's Gymnastics (three periods per week)

Lane Junior College, Chicago, offers two courses of study, one a General Engineering Course and the other a Pre-Medical Course. A diploma is given by the Board of Education of the City of Chicago upon the satisfactory completion of either of these courses.

First Semester			Second Semester
	Hours			Hours
English Composition College Algebra Inorganic Chemistry Qualitative Analysis Elements of Drafting Physical Training	3 5 5 4 4 1		English Composition Analytical Geometry Inorganic Chemistry Quantitative Analysis Descriptive Geometry	5 5 3 4 4
[p. 66] Second Year
First Semester		Second Semester
English Literature Differential Calculus Analytical Mechanics Physics Lectures Physics Laboratory Elective Physical Training Total	2 5 3 3 2 4 1 20		English Literature Integral Calculus Analytical Mechanics Physics Lectures Physics Laboratory Elective Physical Training Total	2 4 4 3 2 4 1 20

Modern Drama

The English Novel

History of Civilization

Modem European History
Elements of Economics
Free Hand Drawing

Kinematical Drawing

Electrical Measurements

Pattern Making

Carpentry

Founding

Forging

2 or 4 *

2 *

4 *

3 to 6

Surveying

Advanced Quantitative Analysis

Organic Chemistry

Machine Design

Kinematics

Machine Tool Work

Architectural Drawing

History of Architecture

Graphic Statics
French 1, 2, 3 or 4

German 1,2,3,4.5 or 6

4 *

3 to 10

4 *

First Semester		Second Semester
English Composition Inorganic Chemistry Qualitative Analysis General Zoology Elective Physical Training Total	3 3 4 4 4 1 20	English Composition Inorganic Chemistry Quantitative Analysis Vertebrate Zoology Elective Physical Training Total	3 3 4 4 4 1 20
Second Year
English Literature Physics Lectures Physics Laboratory German, or French Elective Physical Training Total	2 3 2 4 4 1 16	English Literature Physics Lectures Physics Laboratory German, or French Elective Physical Training Total	2 3 2 4 4 1 16
Electives
Microscopical Technics Embryology	3 3	Evolution and Heredity	3

[p. 67] Crane Junior College, of Chicago, enrolled this year two hundred seventy-seven students, of which number fifty-six are women, two hundred twenty-one men.

First Semester

(Hours)

Second Semester

(Hours)

Chemistry

German

College Algebra

English

Chemistry

German

Analytic Algebra

English

Second Year

Chemistry or Biology

Physics

Calculus

History, Economics or Descrip. Geometry

Chemistry or Biology

Physics

Calculus

Mechanics

Engineering

First Year

Chemistry

General Eng.

Drawing

College Algebra

English

Chemistry

Descriptive Geometry

Analytical Geometry

English

Second Year

Surveying, History orEconomics

Calculus

Physics

Language

Calculus

Mechanics

Physics

Language

Literature and Arts

First Year

English

German, French or Latin

College Algebra

History

English

German, French or Latin

Trigonometry

History

Second Year

English

History

Language

Economics

English

History

Language

Psychology

First Year

Chemistry

English

Zoology

Trigonometry

Chemistry

English

Zoology

History

Second Year

Chemistry

German or Latin

Physics

Zoology

Chemistry

German or Latin

Physics

Zoology

Marion College, Virginia, requires for graduation fifteen hours per week for two years of studies selected from the outline of Collegiate Classes, after the student has completed satisfactorily a high school course of four years.

Outline of Courses for Collegiate Classes (Corresponding to Freshman and Sophomore Classes in High-Grade Standard Colleges).

Latin 3, German 3, French 3, Mathematics 3, Civil Government 3 (one term), Physiology 3 (one term), Physics 3, Chemistry 3, History 3, Astronomy 3.

Latin 3, German 3, French 3, Principles of Political Economy (one term) 3, Ethics 3 (one term), History 3, Chemistry 3 (one term), Mathematics 3.

Cottey College, Missouri, requires for graduation from the Junior College of Arts and Sciences, that the student must, in addition to “the Freshman and Sophomore years” (grades eleven and twelve) complete satisfactorily sixty hour̓s of work under the following schedule:

Freshmen

First Semester

Second Semester

Hours

Latin

English

Plane Geometry

American History

German

Latin

English

Advanced Algebra

American History

German

Sophomore

Latin

English

Chemistry

Solid Geometry

German

Latin

English

Chemistry

Civics

German

Junior

Latin

English

Greek (Elective)

Trigonometry

Botany

French

History of Art (Elective)

History of Modern Europe

Latin

English

Greek (Elective)

College Algebra

Botany

French

History of Art (Elec.)

History - Modern Europe

Senior

Latin (Elective)

Greek (Elective)

English

History - English(Elec.)

Analytics (Elective)

French (Elective)

Logic

Chemistry

Bible

Latin (Elective)

Greek (Elective)

English

Hist.-English (Elec.)

Analytics (Elective)

French (Elective)

Economics

Chemistry

Bible

Cottey College also offers a two years special course in Home Economics leading to the degree A.D.E., Associate of Domestic Economy. The first year, first semester, includes High School Chemistry, Cooking, Sewing, Zoology, French; second semester, High School Chemistry, Cooking, Household Management, Textiles and Drafting, Dietetics, French. The second year, first semester, includes College Chemistry, Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, [p. 70] Evolution of the Home, Nutritional Physiology, Sanitation; second semester, College Chemistry, Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Invalid Cookery and Dietetics, Sociology, Child Study. Entrance requirements to this course are the regular fifteen unite [sic] of high school work. Those admitted to this department are recognized as college girls.

Lindenwood College, Missouri, course leading to the degree of Associate in Arts includes, above the high school course:

English

Ancient Language

Modern Language

Mathematics

History

Physical Science

Biological Science

Elective

Total

hours

“

The elective hours may be taken from the courses offered in Education and Philosophy, English, French, German, Latin, History, Mathematics, Political Economy, Science, Sociology, Home Economics, Art, and Music.

Graduates who desire the Three Years̓ State Certificate permitting the holder to teach in the graded schools of Missouri, must have completed twelve hours in Education.

The Department of Home Economics is arranged for the training of teachers of the subject and for those who desire it as a part of a general education. It offers:

The standard junior colleges for women in Missouri and Virginia regularly offer, in addition to the required work which is regarded as pre-requisite for further study in college or university, courses in Art, Music, Expression, Domestic Science and Domestic Art.

At the last Educational Conference of Academies and High Schools in Relations with the University of Chicago, which was held in Chicago in April, 1917, the general topic for discussion was “The Reorganization and Extension of the High School.” Among other subjects presented were: Junior College English in Joliet High School; Greek and Latin in the Junior College; The Differentiation of American History and Civics Work in High School, Junior High School, and Junior College, in Aim, Subject-matter, and Method; Junior College Physics in the Lane Technical High School; Work Being Done in Junior College Chemistry in Chicago and Vicinity; French in the Junior College. This discussion will doubtless have an important influence upon junior college courses of study which are now in the making.

1.Abelson, Joseph - A Study of the Junior High School Project. Education - Sept. 1916, pp. 1-19

2.Aley, Robert J. - Care of Freshmen in Large Universities. Proceedings N.E.A. 1908, pp. 680-686

4.------ The University Today. University of Chicago Magazine, 1914: March, pp. 124-128, April, pp. 147-156

5. Babbitt, E. H. - The Problem of the Small College in the Southern States. Proceedings of the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 1901

6. Blaisdell, Thos. C. - Should Colleges Admit H.S. Graduates without Regard to Subjects Studies [sic] in the High School?

8. Boynton, F. D. - College Domination of the High School. Educational Review, Feb. 1914, pp. 154-164

9. Brooks, Stratton D. - The Relation of the University to the Secondary School. Proceedings N.E.A., 1909. pp. 192-198

10. Brown, Elmer E.- Educational Progress of the Past Fifteen Years. Proceedings N.E.A., 1915, pp. 48-54

11.----- The Historical Development of Secondary Schools in the United States. School and Society, V. 3, pp. 227-231

12. ----- The Making of our Middle Schools. Longmans, Green & Co., N. Y., pp. 522

13. Brown, Henry E. - A Plea for the Reorganization of the Public High School. School Review, May, 1914

14. Brown, J. Stanley - The Junior College. An unpublished address delivered at the Superintendents’ meeting [p. 73] Kansas City, Mo., March 14, 1917

15. ----- The Junior High School, the Senior High School and the Junior College. Proceedings North Central Association, 1916, pp. 140-151

16. Brush, H. H. The Junior College and the Universities. School and Society, V. 4, pp. 357-365

17. Bulletin of the American Medical Association “Making the Right Start.” Reprinted from Journal of American Medical Association Aug. 19, 1916, pp. 601-607, April 8, 1916, pp. 1106-1107

18. Bulletin of the Board of Education of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Nov., 1916, Statistical Tables I and IV

20. Capen, Samuel Paul - Recent Movements in College and University Administration. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1916, No. 46, pp. 36-40 and 48-51.

22. Chase, Ethel B. - Preliminary Report on the Effect of Junior College Work Upon the High School Course in Botany. Journal of Michigan Schoolmasters’ Club, March, 1916, pp. 114-117

24. Claxton, Philander P. - The Junior College. Association of American Colleges, Bulletin II, pp. 104-112

25. Coursault, Jesse H. — Standardizing the Junior College. Educational Rev., Vol. 49, pp. 56-62

26. Cubberly, Ellwood P. - Some Recent Developments in Secondary Education in California. Education, Oct. 1916.

27. Douglass, Aubrey Augustus - The Junior High School. National Society for the Study of Education, 15^th Year Book, Part III.

28. Duniway, C. A. - The Separation and Development of the Junior College as distinct from the University. N.E.A. 1911, pp 66O-664

29. Felmley, David - What is a Reasonable Limit to Which an Institution may go in Enrolling Students in the First and Second Years and yet Retain the Right to be Classified as a Senior College? Proc. N.C.A. 1916 pp. 130-140

30. Fenwick, Arthur M. - A Modern City’s High School System - Los Angeles. School Review, Vol. 24, pp.116-129

31. Goodspeed, Thomas Wakefield - A History of the University of Chicago. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1916, pp. 503. (Chapter V and pages designated.)

32. Gray, A.A. The Junior College in California. School Review, Vol. 23, pp. 465-

33. ----- Status and Service of the Small College. School and Society, Vol. 3, pp. 586-594

34. Hall, G. Stanley - The High School as the People̓s College. Ped. Sem. Vol. 9, pp. 63-73

36. Hanus, Paul H. - High School Courses of Study. Yonkers-on-Hudson, NY., World Book Company, pp. 166, Chapter I

38. Jordan, David Starr - A Quarter Century of Stanford University. School and Society Vol. 4, pp. i-9

39. Judd, Charles H. - Debate - The Best Organization for American Schools is a Plan Which Shall Divide these Schools into Six Years of Elementary Training and Six Years of Secondary Training. Affirmative. N.E.A. 1916 pp. 915-925

40. “The Junior College in Ca1ifornia.” A bulletin issued by the University of California, July, 1915, pp. 56

42. ----- The New High School and the New High School Teacher. School and Society Vol. 4, pp 267-272

43. Lewis, William D. - Democracy̓s High School. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, pp. 125

44. McLane, C. L. - The Junior College, or Upward Extension of the High School. School Review, Vol. 21, pp. 161-170

45. Main, J. H. T. - No Institution of College Grade which offers few Advanced Courses should be Classified as a Senior College. N.C.A., 1916, pp. 152—158

46. Pearce, Carroll G. - Debate - The Best Organization for American Schools is a Plan Which Shall Divide these Schools into Six Years of Elementary Training and Six Years of Secondary Training. Negative. N.E.A. 1916, pp. 925-

47. Pittenger, B. F. - Uses of the term “Secondary” in American Education. Scholl [sic] Review, Vol. 24, pp. 130-141

48. Rapeer, Louis W. - College Entrance Requirements - The Judgment of Educators. School and Society, Vol. 3, pp. 45-49

49. Report - Thirty-fourth Annual, of the College Board of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., p. 24

50. Report, Sixth, of the Commission on Education, Methodist Episcopal Church, South, pp. 23-24

52. Sanford, Edmund C. - Entrance Requirements and the College Degree. Education, Vol. 33, pp. 281-288

53. Vincent, George E. - The State University in America - Sociological Review, Vol. 9, pp. 40-44

55. Wood, Will C. - Report of the Commissioner of Secondary Schools of California for the Biennial Period Ending June 30, 1916

Daleville College	Daleville
Marion College	Marion
Southern College	Petersburg
Stonewall Jackson College	Abingdon
Virginia College	Roanoke
Virginia Intermont College	Bristol
[p. 43]
Mary Baldwin Seminary	Staunton

Physics	8 semester hours
Chemistry	8 “ ”
Biology	8 “ ”
Elective (preferably French or German)	8 or 6 “
Total	32 or 30 “

Fullerton	$120.00
Los Angeles	150.00
Santa Barbara	50.00
Auburn	167.25

Presbyterian	4
Baptist	3
Methodist Episcopal, Southern	3
Methodist Episcopal	2
Christian	2
Roman Catholic	2
United Presbyterian	1

A.A. degree 1916
Lindenwood Junior College	St. Charles, Mo.	10
Howard-Payne Junior College	Fayette, Mo.	25
Stephens College	Columbia, Mo	49 (1915)
Hardin Junior College	Mexico, Mo.	12
Christian College	Columbia, Mo.	21 (1917)
Cottey College	Nevada, Mo.	7
William Woods College	Fulton, Mo.	10

Abilene Christian College	Abilene	None
Goodnight Baptist College	Goodnight	None
John Tarleton College	Stephenville	None
Midland College	Midland	None

Domestic Science
First Year	Second Year
Principles of Cookery [p. 71]	General Dietetics
Hygiene House Construction and Sanitation	Serving Normal Method
Domestic Art
First Year	Second Year
Plain Sewing Handwork (Basketry, caneing, weaving, lace-making)	Dressmaking Textile and Clothing